In India, about 60% of tobacco users use smokeless tobacco (ST) alone. Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma is one of the most common cancers in India. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) monograph (Vol 89) found a significant association between ST use and oral cancer. However, only a few articles from India were included in this monograph. To overcome this lacuna, we have reviewed the articles published from India investigating the association between ST use and malignant and premalignant diseases of head and neck region. Data collection has been performed by computer-aided search of the MedLine and PubMed databases using different combinations of the key words. For malignant lesions, only cohort and case control studies were considered for review. For premalignant lesions and dental diseases other than case control studies, some cross-sectional studies have also been reviewed. Studies found a significant association between ST use and cancer of the oral cavity. The association was stronger for the buccal mucosa compared to tongue and for females compared to males. Significant association noted between cancer of the hypopharynx and oropharynx with ST use but no definitive association noted for cancer of the larynx and nasopharynx. Some dental disease and oral premalignant conditions were also associated with ST use. Indian studies suggest ST use is strongly associated with cancer of the oral cavity, oropharynx and hypopharynx.

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Oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF) a condition first described in the 1950s in the modern literature still remains elusive of a cure. For many years this condition had been confined to countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc., but now this condition is being reported from Western countries as well. Inspite of intensive research over the years into the etiologic factors of OSMF, a single etiologic factor cannot be pointed out with certainty rather several causative factors have been proposed. Patients suffering with OSMF initially present with a blanched or marble-like pale mucosa, vesiculations, and also intolerance to hot and spicy food. Gradually, the patient may develop fibrous bands in the buccal and labial mucosa which causes a restriction in opening the mouth. The evidence for the various treatment modalities for OSMF is weak hence better documentation of the studies performed with standardized criteria is required. The current review aims to refresh our knowledge regarding OSMF from an Indian perspective and make a few suggestions to fill the lacunae in this field.

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Aims: To find out the utility of free to total PSA ratio in discriminating chronic prostatitis and prostate cancer. Setting and design: The patients visited urology clinics at Batra Hospital and Medical Research Center, New Delhi. Background: The use of serum free to total PSA as a diagnostic tool for prostate cancer has led to early detection of prostate cancer; however, the effect of inflammation on f/t PSA ratio restricts its use in early detection of cancer. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in age related 101 patients which include 27 carcinoma patients (group I), 34 BPH patients (group II) and 40 chronic prostatitis patients (group III). Serum total PSA (tPSA) and free PSA (fPSA) were analyzed on Elecsys 2010. These were compared with histological reports of biopsy specimen. Other biochemistry tests were done on Randox Imola. P Value was calculated using one way ANOVA with posthoc Bonferroni analysis. Results: Serum total PSA levels were comparable in group I and III and were higher than group II (P < 0.049). Serum fPSA in group I was not significantly different from group II and III, However, group II has higher levels than group III (P < 0.035). Difference was significant for f/t PSA ratio in group I and II (P < 0.00) and group II and III (P < 0.000).Group I and III were with comparable levels (P < 0.807). Conclusions: f/t PSA ratio is not a good discriminator for malignancy and chronic prostatitis. This limitation of f/t PSA ratio must be taken into consideration while interpreting the results clinically.

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Context: Breast cancer incidence rates are high in developed countries and much lower in less developed countries including India. Aims: The aim of the following study is to compare breast cancer incidence rates in rural, urban and metro regions of India and to estimate risk of developing breast cancer associated with residence in a rural area. Settings and Design: Descriptive and analytical study design. Materials and Methods: We extracted age adjusted incidence rate from 26 population-based cancer registries and data from hospital-based case-control study to estimate rate and risk ratio for developing breast cancer in an urban region compared with a rural residence. Statistical Analysis: The rate ratios and 95% confidence interval (CI) for developing breast cancer in the urban and metro region compared with rural registry of Barshi were estimated. The odds ratio (OR) and 95% CI for developing breast cancer in women residing in a rural region was estimated by fitting unconditional logistic regression using hospital-based case-control study data. Average annual percentage change in most recent 15 years (1996-2010) for Barshi (rural), Aurangabad (urban), and Mumbai (metro) cancer registry was obtained by fitting a log-linear model using joint point regression. Results: Living first 20 years of life in a rural area reduces the risk of breast cancer (OR = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.56-0.76). Conclusions: The current study demonstrates that lifestyle operative in a rural area is protective against risk of developing breast cancer.

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Background: Aberrant glycosylation is the universal feature of cancer and components of various glycoconjugates, such as sialic acid is found to rise in various malignancies. The objective of this study was to evaluate the serum and salivary sialic acid in oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMD) and oral cancer (OC) to investigate the possibility of using this as a diagnostic marker. Materials and Methods: The study included 85 subjects, who were grouped as control (30), OPMD patients (25), and oral cancer patients (30). Serum and unstimulated whole saliva was collected from subjects of all groups and sialic acid estimation was done using spectrophotometry. The results were tabulated and analyzed statistically. Results: The mean serum sialic acid levels in normal, OPMD, and oral cancer group were 7.515, 19.620, and 55.235 mg/dL, respectively, whereas the levels of salivary sialic acid were 1.5113, 2.3302, and 9.0304 mg/dL, respectively. A very highly significant rise (P < 0.005) in serum and salivary sialic acid was observed in the study subjects compared with that of the control. Conclusions: The present study showed a significant and gradual increase in serum and salivary sialic acid from control to oral potentially malignant disorders to oral cancer. From this study we can suggest that sialic acid can be used as a reliable biomarker. As this monosaccharide is observed in saliva in detectable quantity, saliva can be used as a diagnostic medium for screening and early detection of oral cancer.

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Background: Cervical cancer being a major cause of morbidity and mortality in women in developing countries, its awareness is essential. Aim: The aim of this study is to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices of women regarding the basic screening test for detection of cancer cervix. Settings and Design: Population based cross-sectional study. Materials and Methods: Cross-sectional prospective study was conducted. Information from consenting participants (450) was collected using structured questionnaire. Answers were described in terms of knowledge, attitude and practice and their respective adequacy with respect to Papanicolaou (Pap) test, the most common test used for early detection of cervical cancer. Adequacy was compared between the categories of socio demographic and clinical variables. Statistical Analysis: The data collected was analyzed using statistical package (SPSS version 18.0). Adequacy was compared between the categories of the control variables by χ² test with a 5% significance level. Results: Knowledge, attitude and practices regarding Pap test were adequate in 32.7%, 18.2% and 7.3% of women respectively. Major impediment to adequate practice was lack of request by physician. Knowledge, attitudes and practices were found to increase significantly with increasing age and education. Conclusion: Effective information, education and communication strategies are required to improve the level of awareness of public. Health-care professional should be proactive in imparting knowledge at every opportunity.

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Introduction: Primary intestinal lymphoma (PIL) is defined as an extranodal lymphoma arising in the intestine. This study includes 11 PILs. Objectives: The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinicopathological characteristics of primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) in the small and large intestine. All cases were reclassified according to the World Health Organization classification of lymphoma in 2001. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to confirm the histopathological diagnosis. Materials and Methods: Eleven cases of primary non-Hodgkin in the small and large intestine were studied retrospectively in a 5 year period. There were seven cases of resected intestinal specimens and four biopsy specimens. Five cases from ileum and two cases each from caecum and duodenum and one case each from jejunum and duodenum. Hematoxylin and eosin stained sections were studied with light microscopy and IHC for CD5, 20, 21 and cyclin D1 were done. Results: It is a retrospective study of 11 cases of intestinal lymphomas. Abdominal pain and abdominal lump were two main common presenting symptoms. NHLs were more common in the small intestine. PILs are common in adults (75% above 46 years) with male preponderance. All were NHLs and B-cell type. Five cases were diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and four cases each were mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue lymphoma and follicular lymphoma. One case was lymphomatoid polyposis or mantle cell lymphoma. Conclusion: PILs is rare and differs significantly from their gastric counterpart, not only in pathology but also with regard to clinical features, management and prognosis. Due to the lack of characteristic symptoms and a low incidence rate, PIL is misdiagnosed until serious complications occur, such as perforation and bleeding and hence needs to be accurately diagnosed.

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Cancer stem cells are a small population of cells in a tumor. They have the ability to self-renew and maintain the tumor. The most apt and accepted hypothesis for tumor development is Cancer Stem Cells. This review focuses on this concept of cancer stem cells, serving their purpose and leading to the development of tumor. There are many cell biomarkers which have been described for the identification and characterization of cancer stem cells. The most prominent of the cellular markers for the detection of cancer stem cells; CD133, CD44, ALDH-1 along with some others have been discussed in detail in this review.

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Cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCLs) comprise a heterogeneous group of lymphoproliferative disorders characterized by the proliferation of skin-homing post-thymic T-cells. It is the second most common extranodal non-Hodgekin's lymphoma. Many variants of mycosis fungoides and CTCLs are known to date, differing in clinical, histological, and immunophenotypic characteristics. Oral involvement has also been reported rarely in CTCLs. Treatment depends on the disease stage or the type of variant. New insights into the disease and the number of emerging novel therapeutic options have made it an interesting area for dermatologists and medical oncologists.

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Background: There are limited data regarding cabazitaxel use beyond 10 cycles. Patients and Methods: Retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data of patients with metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer who received over 10 cycles of cabazitaxel after docetaxel failure. Results: Four patients received between 14 and 27 cycles. Reasons for stopping cabazitaxel were toxicity (2), progression (1) and logistics (1). Two of the three patients with measurable disease attained a partial remission (PR). Three patients continued to have a PSA response after 10 cycles; PSA nadir occurred between 17 and 23 cycles. Other than peripheral neuropathy (PN), all the cabazitaxel-related toxicities occurred after the initial cycles and did not increase cumulatively. Clinically significant neuropathy occurred after 15-17 cycles. The cabazitaxel-induced PN was partially reversible, with improvement from grade 3 to grade 2 after a 3-5-month long drug holiday. Conclusion: Cautiously continuing cabazitaxel until progression or intolerable toxicity may maximize efficacy.

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Purpose: Retrospective analysis of 81 routinely diagnosed gastrointestinal (GI) lymphoma to illustrate clinicopathological and immunohistochemical characteristics with predisposing condition. Materials and Methods: Age, sex, site, tumour stage, associated pathological features like lympho-epithelial lesion (LEL), atrophic gastritis (AG), intestinal metaplasia (IM) and enteropathy changes were analysed. Requisite immunohistochemical panel was applied wherever needed. Results: There were 55 male and 26 female patients with median age of 54.5 years. Site wise distributions were stomach 40, small intestine 22, colon 4, cecum 2, ileocecum 3, esophagus 1 and multiple sites 9. Histological subtypes were mucosa associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma (MALTOMA) 48, diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBL) 21, T cell lymphoma 9 [5 anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) and 4 enteropathy associated T cell lymphoma (EATL)], immunoproliferative small intestinal disease (IPSID) 2 and follicular lymphoma 1. LEL was present in 31 cases. Of the 19 AG, 8 had associated IM, and 1 case each had associated H Pylori infection and neuroendocrine tumor. Enteropathy was observed in 4 EATL, and one case each of DLBL and high grade MALTOMA. Giardia infection was present in 1 low grade duodenal MALTOMA. Of the 24 resected specimens, 16 were stage IE, 7 stage IIE and 1 stage IV (Mushoff's staging). Conclusion: Primary GI lymphoma was frequently observed in 6 ^th decade of life with male preponderance. Stomach was the commonest site and high grade MALTOMA being the commonest histological variant. Isolated colonic involvement and intestinal perforations were not infrequent. Rare variants like ALCL and follicular lymphomas were also observed.

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Background: The ABO blood group antigens are present on the surface of red blood cells and various epithelial cells. As the majority of human cancers are derived from epithelial cells, changes in blood group antigens constitute an important aspect of human cancers. The aim of the study was to establish clinical usefulness of ABO blood group as a predisposing factor in early diagnosis and management of patients with oral precancerous lesions/conditions. Materials and Methods: The study sample consisted of 50 control and 50 oral precancer (25 leukoplakia and 25 Oral Submucous Fibrosis) confirmed by histopathologic examination. All samples were subjected to blood group testing and their prevalence was compared by Z-test using STATA version 8. Results: The "A" blood group was prevalent among the precancerous group. Significant differences on prevalences of blood groups were found (P < 0.05) between control versus leukoplakia and OSMF. Interestingly, 24% gutka chewers who had higher number of grades of dysplasia were falling in "A" blood group. Conclusion: Blood group type should be considered along with other risk factors to understand the individual patient's risk and further studies in larger samples with inclusion of Rh factor is needed to elucidate the relationship with ABO blood group types.

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CD44 is a principal transmembrane hyluronate receptor, which acts as a hook between Extracellular Matrix and the cytoskeleton. CD44 is up regulated in breast cancer, which in turn helps in tumor progression and metastasis. There has been a lot of attention given to CD44 in recent years because of the discovery, CD44+/CD24- lineage marks breast cancer stem cells. Recent clinical and experimental findings show that CD44 is involved in the tumor associated proliferation, invasion, migration, and in many pathways involved in maintaining cancer cells which inturn are correlated with patient's survival. All these findings make CD44 as a potential target for breast cancer treatment. The methods of literature search for this article include Pubmed, BMC cancer and other printed journal article.

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Objectives: The usage of Ultrasonography (US) in the diagnosis and management of patients with thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer is increasing. This method is also advocated for the pre-operative and post-operative diagnosis of cervical lymph node (LN) metastases. This article is trying to figure out the correlation between ultrasound features and pathological classification of thyroid carcinoma (TC). Materials and Methods: A total of 407 cases of patients with TC were selected from records between 2000 and 2006, which were used to analyze and compare the ultrasound features in different pathologic classification of TC. We grouped the US typing of TC according to the ultrasound features. Then, we implemented pre-surgery evaluation of TC by ultrasound assessment. Results: We classified these patients into six groups by ultrasound: (1) classical, (2) non-typical, (3) microminiaturize, (4) diffuse sclerosing, (5) medullary, and (6) undifferentiated. Ultrasonographic types of papillary TC: (1) classical, (2) microminiaturize, (3) diffuse, (4) cystic, (5) peripheral, (6) multi-nodules, (7) invasive, and (8) complicated Hashimoto. Grouping of the ultrasonic type of cervical LN metastasis: (1) cystic, (2) micro calcification, (3) macro-lymph, (4) microminiaturize, and (5) invasive. The ultrasound assessment of clinical staging had a higher sensitivity rate and specificity, and the accuracy rate of T stage was 93.9%. Conclusion: Ultrasound is a useful tool in the evaluation, characterization, quantification, and location of TC and cervical LN metastasis.

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Background: Breast cancer causes significant disruption to the quality of life (QOL) of its patients, which is compounded further by lack of information and adequate facilities for rehabilitation. Materials and Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in women who had completed their Primary treatment of breast cancer. The QOL was assessed by Functional assessment of cancer therapy-breast (FACT-B) version 4, and information and rehabilitation needs were enquired about in a semi-structured interview. Results: A total of 154 patients were enrolled and divided into three groups according to the time elapsed after initial treatment; Group I: 1-2 years, Group II: 2-5 years, Group III: >5 years The FACT-B mean scores were; Group I (n = 64): 79.06 ± 14.60; Group II (n = 48): 85.75 ± 20.15; and Group III (n = 42): 89.83 ± 12.80. Patients in Group I scored lowest on physical well-being subscale, Group II on breast specific subscale and Group III on Social well-being subscale. Pain, lack of energy, inability to meet the needs of the family, fear that the condition will get worse and loss of body image were significant factors contributing to poor QOL. Analysis of interviewshowed many unmet information needs. Main rehabilitation needs were effective treatment of physical symptoms and counselling about body image issues and sexual dysfunctions. Easy availability of clinical and social support services were major felt needs in the long-term follow-up. Conclusions: Targeted Interventions are needed to address issues relating to QOL and rehabilitation needs of breast cancer patients.

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Treatment of cancer is limited by affordability of patients in the many developing countries including India. Generic drug manufacturers have responded to this scenario by making drugs available at affordable costs, often at less than 10% the cost of the original brand. In our practice, it is found that there is a three-fold higher prescription of generic brands compared to innovator, accompanied by cost savings of up to 80% per prescription. Unfortunately, the regulatory environment prevailing in India is not geared to ensure satisfactory quality of generic products. The standards set by the regulatory agencies for establishing equivalence of generics vis-ΰ-vis the innovator product allow anticancer generics to enter markets without undergoing clinical evaluation. Many drug manufacturing units in India flout good manufacturing practice norms, which was evident during the center for drug evaluation and research classifications inspection in the year 2006. Inferior drugs have therefore, made their way into the Indian markets, compromising the quality of care. The system of drug manufacturing and marketing approval needs a major overhaul, including regular inspection of manufacturing facilities. Bioequivalence should be made mandatory for all oral formulations. Unless these measures are rigidly implemented, the benefits of generic substitution would be seriously undermined.

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Context: A growing number of cities, districts, counties and states across the globe are going smoke-free. While an Indian national law namely Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act (COTPA) exists since 2003 and aims at protecting all the people in our country; people still smoke in public places. Aim: This study assessed knowledge and perceptions about smoking, SHS and their support for Smoke-free laws among people residing in Mohali district, Punjab. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in Mohali district of Punjab, India. A sample size of 1600 people was obtained. Probability Proportional to Size technique was used for selecting the number of individuals to be interviewed from each block and also from urban and rural population. Statistical Analysis Used: We estimated proportions and tested for significant differences by residence, smoking status, literacy level and employment level by means of the chi-square statistics. Statistical software SPSS for Windows version 20 was used for analysing data . Results: The overall prevalence of current smoking among study participants was 25%. Around 96% were aware of the fact that smoking is harmful to health, 45% viewed second-hand smoke to be equally harmful as active smoking, 84.2% knew that smoking is prohibited in public places and 88.3% wanted the government to take strict actions to control the menace of public smoking. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that people aged 20 years and above, unemployed, urban, literate and non-smokers had significantly better perception towards harms of smoking. The knowledge about smoke free provisions of COTPA was significantly better among males, employed individuals, urban residents, and literate people. Conclusions: There was high knowledge about deleterious multi-dimensional effects of smoking among residents and a high support for implementation of COTPA. Efforts should be taken to make Mohali a "smoke-free district".

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Background: The observation of neuroendocrine activity during clinical course of ovarian cancer, suggested the use of neuroendocrine serum markers to detect this tumor. Aim: To evaluate the usefulness of serum measurements of chromogranin A (CgA) in the various stages of ovarian cancer. Materials and Methods: We measured serum concentrations of CgA and cancer antigen 125 (CA125) in 79 women at different clinical stages of ovarian cancer, enrolled between 2000 and 2007, and in a control group of 50 female volunteers. Results: CgA showed increased levels in patients with ovarian cancer as compared with healthy subjects, as it has been seen for CA125 serum levels. We also observed significant increase in CgA and CA125 serum levels when comparing patients with ovarian cancer in stage I versus stage II (P < 0.001); stage I versus stage III (P < 0.001); stage I versus stage IV (P < 0.001); stage II versus stage III (P < 0.001); stage II versus stage IV (P < 0.001). In patients with ovarian carcinoma in stage IV we observed a correlation between CgA and CA125 with a difference of 0.718 (P < 0.001). Conclusions: CgA serum levels were elevated in ovarian cancer and increased with the stage. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of CgA as a prognostic indicator during treatment for ovarian cancer.

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Background: Colorectal cancer is one of the most common causes of death in the world and third and fourth most common cancer among men and women in Iran respectively. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a tyrosine kinase receptor that shows over expression in epithelial tumors and regulates important processes in tumorigenesis. Incidence and characteristics of colorectal cancer are based on the geographic region and race. Aim: In this research work, the over expression of EGFR in formalin fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) colorectal cancer tumor tissue of patients was studied. Materials and Methods: Fifteen FFPE colorectal cancer tumor tissues (10 women and 5 men; 25-65 years old and stage IV) and 15 non-patients (nine women and six men; 25-65 years old) that were collected during 2006-2012. EGFR gene expression level was analyzed by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (PCR). All PCR reactions were performed in triplicate for both target gene and internal control (18s ribosomal ribonucleic acid) with the 2^−ΔΔCT method. Gene expression differences in patients and controls were evaluated with t-test. Results: The results were showed EGFR gene over expression in 12 (80%) of 15 patients. There was a statistically significant difference in the prevalence of EGFR expression between patients and control (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Our results demonstrated EGFR gene over expression in colorectal cancer tumor tissue compared with controls.

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Background: Primary synchronous bilateral breast cancer (PSBBC) is a rare clinical entity. The reported incidence ranges between 0.3% and 12%. There are several controversial issues regarding PSBBC pertaining to the diagnostic criteria, nomenclature, and management policies. Materials and Methods: Fourteen cases of PSBBC treated between 2001 to 2010 at our institute were retrospectively analysed in regards to demographic data, management and follow up. Results: PSBBC constituted 0.19% of total breast cancer patients at our institute. Age ranged from 28 to 78 years. PSBBC were detected by clinical examination in eight cases and by mammography in six cases. Twelve patients underwent bilateral modified radical mastectomy, one had unilateral mastectomy on one side and breast conservation on the other side and one patient has bilateral breast conservation. Majority of patients belonged to stage 2 and stage 3. All patients were found to have invasive ductal carcinoma. Five cases were ER/PR positive and 8 patients were triple hormone receptor negative. Eight patients received unilateral and six received bilateral adjuvant radiotherapy. Nine patients received adjuvant chemotherapy. 5 patients received adjuvant hormonal therapy. Median follow up of patients was 15.4 months. Conclusion: PSBBC is a rare event warranting awareness and screening of the contralateral breast in patients with unilateral breast cancer. These patients require individualized treatment planning based on the tumor factors of the index lesion. Further multi institutional prospective studies are needed for adequate understanding of management of PSBBC.

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Background: The histological detection of axillary lymph node tumor metastases in cases of breast carcinoma is of major prognostic significance, but may be difficult when metastases are of microscopic size. The micrometastases can be detected either by immunohistochemistry (IHC) or serial sectioning. Aims: We investigated whether immunohistochemical techniques and serial sectioning can increase the accuracy of metastatic detection and compared the efficacy of both. Materials and Methods: Thirty cases of breast carcinoma were studied in all of whom the axillary lymph nodes had been reported as free of metastases. Blocks from these cases were serially sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin and a single section was stained with monoclonal antibody to cytokeratin AE1/AE3 and epithelial membrane antigen. The positivity for micrometastases was correlated with size, number, grade and histological type of primary tumor, lymph node size and number. Results and Conclusion: In 5/30 previously unsuspected cases, micrometastases were revealed by IHC and in 1/30 by serial sectioning. These findings suggested that serial sectioning is a labor intensive, time consuming and impractical procedure. Micrometastases were more frequently detected with age of patient >50 years, Grade 2/3 tumor, tumor size >5 cm and more than one primary tumor. Immunohistochemical analysis can be recommended as a routine procedure or an adjunct to routine histological procedures for the correct staging of breast carcinoma and use of adjuvant chemotherapy, especially in the high risk group.

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Context: Worldwide, breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. In India and other developing countries, breast carcinoma ranks second only to cervical carcinoma among women. But the incidence of breast cancer is on the rise and may become number one cancer in females in near future. Aims: (1) To find out the magnitude of reproductive risk factors of carcinoma breast among the study subjects; and (2) to find out the association of reproductive risk factors with breast carcinoma. Materials and Methods: The study was done in the wards of General Surgery and Oncosurgery from August 2009-July 2010 in a tertiary care institute. A total of 128 histopathologically confirmed cases of breast cancer those came in this duration were considered. Equal controls were selected by simple random sampling by lottery method. The controls were matched for age with a range of ± 2 years. The subjects were interviewed using a pre-tested questionnaire. Written informed consent was taken from study subjects before starting the interview. Statistical Analysis Used: Chi-square test, odds ratio with 95% confidence interval, and t test. Results: The age group of the cases was 25-78 years, whereas that of the controls was 24-79 years. The difference among cases and controls regarding age at marriage, age at menarche, age at menopause, age at first pregnancy, and number of children was statistically significant. Continuous variables of the study population were analyzed by independent t tests, in which age at menarche and age at first pregnancy were found statistically significant. Conclusions: Information, education, and communication activities regarding risk factors and breast self-examination should be imparted to the women to create awareness about this fatal disease.

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Background: The present study was done to see if quality of life improves following oesophagectomy for carcinoma of oesophagus. Materials and Methods: This was a prospective study done from June 2007 to July 2009. All patients undergoing oesophagectomy and cervical anastomoses for squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of oesophagus were included in the study. Quality of life assessment was done using EORTC QLQ C-30 and its oesophagus specific module (OES-18) before surgery and at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. Results: There were 55 patients who underwent oesophagectomy for carcinoma of oesophagus. On the EORTC functional scale it was noted that patients undergoing transhiatal oesophagectomy showed significant improvement of emotional function only. Patients undergoing transthoracic oesophagectomy showed a decrease in functional scores in the first three months which improved later but this change was not significant. On the EORTC symptom scale, patients undergoing transhiatal oesophagectomy showed significant improvement of constipation but not in other symptoms. Patients undergoing transthoracic oesophagectomy showed an increase in symptoms for the first three months followed by a decrease which was significant with respect to scores for constipation and pain. On the EORTC oesophagus specific symptom scores, patients in both groups showed significant improvement of dysphagia and eating. Conclusion: Patients with carcinoma of oesophagus undergoing transhiatal oesophagectomy may not show significant improvement in quality of life. However there will be significant improvement in dysphagia and eating. Patients undergoing transthoracic oesophagectomy may show an initial decrease in the quality of life.

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Context: Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is one type of hereditary colon cancer with a large number of precancerous polyps that initiation to growth in childhood and adolescent. Mutation in adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene is the cause of FAP. Aims: The aim of the current study was to standardize multiplex ligation probe amplification (MLPA) method in screening of APC large deletions for the first time in Iranian patients with FAP. Subjects and Methods: Deoxyribonucleic acid was extracted from 34 FAP patients by saluting out method. All patients were screened for APC large deletions whit MLPA and for the positive results, respective region was investigated by polymerase chain reaction sequencing. All genetic alterations were doubled checked in two separated rounds of MLPA. Results: The detection rate of large fragment deletions in APC was 5.8% (2/34). Both of the Iranian patients had deletion in the middle and the end of exon 15, however, comparing of clinical features between patient with the large deletion and patients without deletion did not show any significant difference in each variable including, age at diagnosis, signs of disease and poly type. Conclusions: It seems that exon 15 of APC gene is probably the hotspot region in Iranian FAP patients. Association of genotype/phenotype is well known in FAP patients, but in this study statistical analyses did not show a significant difference in each considerable factor between patients with and without large deletions. It seems better to consider MLPA as an initial step to screening APC mutations.

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Context: Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) detects changes in tissue electrical properties and has been seen as a prognostic tool in several chronic conditions, including cancer. AIMS: The study was conducted to investigate whether there are any tissue electrical differences in patients with head and neck cancer (H and NC) before and after surgery treatment. Settings and Design: The observational study was performed at the Otolaryngology Department, Head and Neck Oncology. Materials and Methods : Tissue electrical properties were assessed in 31 patients with H and NC before and 2 weeks after surgery treatment. Direct bioimpedance measures [resistance, reactance, phase angle (PA)] were determined by BIA. Statistical Analysis Used: The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess the distribution conformity of examined parameters with a normal distribution; the Fisher (F) test was used to assess variance homogeneity. For group comparisons of metric data we used the Mann-Whitney U test. P value < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. The statistical analysis for this study was performed using the computer software STATISTICA v. 8.0 (StatSoft). Results: PA at 50 kHz was found to be significantly (P = 0.000009) lower after surgery in patients with H and NC than before treatment (4.69° ±0.71 vs. 4.22 ± 0.83, respectively). Resistance was significantly (P = 0.0005) greater after surgery in patients with H and NC than before (596.24 ± 96.31 ohm vs 647.64 ± 276.11 ohm, respectively). Conclusions: There are tissue electrical differences before and after surgery in patients diagnosed with H and NC. Further observations would be useful to feedback in support therapy planning of individual patients.

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Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between chemotherapy use and the frequency of pulmonary embolism (PE) and associated mortality, clinical, and biochemical parameters. An additional aim was to analyze computed tomography pulmonary angiography findings. Materials and Methods: The study population comprised 65 of 368 consecutive patients diagnosed with PE who underwent chemotherapy in the Medical Oncology Department. The study population had cancer of various origins, including breast, colorectal, lung, gynecological, gastric and pancreatic, lymphatic, and other sites. The patients' clinical records were reviewed for leukocyte and platelet count, mean platelet volume (MPV), neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, and level of mortality. As the parameters were normally distributed, the correlation coefficients and their significance were calculated using Pearson's test. One-way analysis of variance was used to compare the leukocyte counts among the cancer groups. A t-test was used to compare the means of the platelet and leukocyte counts between the patients. A Chi-square test was used to compare binary outcomes for categorical variables. Patients who died in the 1 ^st year and others (survivors and patients who died after the 1 ^st year) were compared using multinomial logistic regression analysis. Results: When the patients who died in the 1 ^st year and the survivors were compared, there was a statistically significant difference in the platelet count between the two groups. The platelet count, MPV, and leukocyte count of the patients with PE were significantly high. The leukocyte count was also significantly high in patients with breast, colorectal, lung, and gynecological cancers. Conclusion: Our results indicate that in cancer patients with PE who undergo chemotherapy, the platelet count, MPV, and leukocyte count are significantly high.

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Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the association of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) with serum levels of interleukin-7 (IL-7) and IL-8, the two cytokines whose associations with HNSCC need more clarifications. Materials and Methods: Commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits were used for the quantification of the cytokines. Sera were collected from 48 untreated patients (36 men and 12 women; mean age: 52.7 ± 9.8 years) and 34 healthy donors (26 men and 8 women; mean age: 53.1 ± 9.0 years). Results: Serum IL-8 level was neither significantly different between HNSCC patients and control individuals nor associated with smoking status, gender, age, tumor location, tumor grade, and stage of the patients (P > 0.05). Regarding IL-7, all control individuals had serum levels below the sensitivity of the kit (3 pg/ml), but nine patients had detectable levels, and that the mean serum IL-7 was significantly higher in the patients compared to the controls (P = 0.008). Conclusions: Serum IL-8 level is not significantly associated with HNSCC. With the sensitivity of the kit we employed, it seems that serum IL-7 levels are specifically elevated in HNSCC patients compared to healthy individuals. Data from other independent studies are required to clarify the possible employment of IL-7 as an HNSCC biomarker.

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Background: Childhood cancers represent an important global public health problem. Survival is still dismal in most low income countries. Materials and Methods: A prospective study of childhood cancers diagnosed at AKTH, Kano was undertaken from January 2003 to December 2009 to determine the pattern, socio-economic and geographical features. Results: Malignant lymphomas constituted 46.5% of all cases, of which 30.1% were Burkitt's lymphoma, 9.8% were Non-Hodgkin (non Burkitt's) lymphoma and 6.6% were Hodgkin lymphoma. Retinoblastoma was the second most common malignancy constituting 15.2% of all cases, followed by Nephroblastoma 12.5% and acute leukemia's accounted for 14.1% of all cases. Others were Neuroblastoma 5.5%, Rhabdomyosarcoma 1.9% and CNS and Hepatissc tumors 4.3%. About 80% of parents of these children are very poor and could not afford the cost of treatment. Fifty one percent of the patients were alive at 12 months and the mortality was 24%. Conclusion: Childhood cancer is common in Kano. Free treatment is what is required since majority of the parents could not afford the cost of treatment.

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Context: Randomized studies have shown different magnitude of bevacizumab (BV) benefit in the treatment of advanced breast cancer. Aims: The aim of the study is to evaluate the efficacy and safety of BV for the treatment of human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 (HER2) negative metastatic disease. Settings and Design: A large observational institutional study in Moroccan population. Materials and Methods: From January 2009 to December 2011, 42 patients with HER2 negative metastatic breast cancer were analyzed. Results: The median age was 51 years. Approximately two-third of patients analyzed were treated at the first line with BV in association with (paclitaxel, docetaxel or capecitabine) in (40.7%; 40.7% and 18.5%) and the other third at second-line therapy with a combination of the same drugs in (46.6%, 26.6% and 266% respectively); the median number of cycles was 15. In terms of the clinical benefit rate there was a trend in favor of the combination with taxanes and among responders, median duration of objective response was longer with paclitaxel. In addition, analyses of progression-free survival (PFS) across subgroups in both first and second line therapy showed consistent improvements in PFS with the combination of BV and paclitaxel the difference was statistically significant. Concerning safety, the BV was generally well-tolerated. Conclusions: BV in HER2 negative metastatic diseases potentially improved objective response rate and PFS especially in combination with Paclitaxel, which confirm and expand on the results from published literature, with tolerable toxicity.

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Aims and Background: Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a chemotherapy-responsive tumor and associated with alterations in the coagulation system. Addition of low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) to combination chemotherapy (CT) had resulted in increase in survival. The present retrospective trial was designed to determine whether the duration of dalteparin usage has an effect on progression and survival. Materials and Methods: The medical records of 67 patients with SCLC who were given cisplatin-etoposide and concomitant LMWH (dalteparin) was evaluated retrospectively. Results: Median follow-up of patients was 11.3 months. Outcome: 10.6% complete response, 3.0% good partial response, 36.4% partial response, 10.6% stable disease, and 39.4% progressive disease. Side-effects were seen in 40.3% of the patients. Median dalteparin duration was 6,1 months. According the duration of dalteparin patients were grouped in three: who took dalteparin less than 4 months (Group A), 4-6 months (Group B) and more than 6 months (Group C). Mean overall survival (OS) in Group A was 6.5 months, in Group B 11.8 months, and Group C 14.6 months. Mean OS in Group B and C were statistically significantly (P < 0.001) longer than Group A, between Group B and C there was not any significant difference (P = 0.037). Mean progression free survival (PFS) was 9 months. Conclusions: The CT plus LMWH minimum 4 months long is well-tolerable, and may improve PFS and OS in patients with SCLC. For treatment of patients with SCLC CT plus LMWH may be considered as effective future-therapy, and further multi-centre randomised prospective clinical trials must be done to determine the new standard treatment approach for SCLC.

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Background and Purpose: Increased uptake in the thyroid gland (TG) is often identified as an incidental finding on the whole body fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography ( ¹⁸ F-FDG PET/CT) in non-thyroid cancer patients. Currently, there is no consensus on the appropriate approach for the management of these cases. Thyroid ultrasound, scintigraphy and fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) are suggested to exclude malignant thyroid lesions. Our aim is to determine the importance of increased F-18-FDG uptake in the TG on positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) scans in patients who are being screened for various forms of non-thyroid cancer. Materials and Methods: We evaluated 2000 cases undergoing whole body PET/CT scanning between April 2011 and October 2012. The age, sex, type of primary cancer, maximum standardized uptake value (SUV _max ), size of the thyroid nodules and cervical lymph nodes (CLNs) on ¹⁸ F-FDG PET/CT images and if available, the biopsy results were evaluated. Results: In total, 57 patients (23 men, 34 women, mean age ± standard deviation (SD), 60.89 ± 14 years) showed an increased fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose ( ¹⁸ F-FDG) uptake by the TG (average SUV _max : 4.07 ± 3.7). The CLNs were detected in 19/57 patients (33%). Only 20 cases (35%) received FNAB. The final histopathological diagnosis was papillary thyroid carcinoma in seven patients (mean SUV _max ± SD: 6.0 ± 5.43) and benign thyroid disease in seven patients (mean SUV _max ± SD: 2.36 ± 0.63). The FNAB results were undetermined for six patients. Conclusion: Focal high ¹⁸ F-FDG uptake in the TG may be associated with an increased risk of malignancy, but the clinical significance is unclear. More data are needed to elucidate the role of the SUV in the differentiation of benign and malign thyroid lesions. If a focal increase in ¹⁸ F-FDG uptake in the TG on PET/CT is present, a prompt histopathological evaluation should be suggested to clinicians for definitive diagnosis.

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Objective: The clinical outcome, especial the immunologic responses to cancer and graft, of dendritic cell (DC) vaccine in the treatment of advanced de novo colorectal cancer (CRC) in renal transplant patients was investigated in this study. Materials and Methods: 7 patients were received 1 cycle tumor lysate pulsed autologous DC vaccine. The positive cell-mediated cytotoxicity responses to DC vaccine against CRC cell in two out of 7 patients were seen by delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) test. The positive cell-mediated cytotoxicity responses to DC vaccine against normal kidney cell in all 7 patients were not seen by DTH tests and no notable change of renal function during and after vaccination. Conclusions: DC vaccine has emerged as a promising new strategy in the treatment of advanced de novo CRC in renal transplant patients and DC vaccines have become an attractive therapeutic option, developing immune responses specific against CRC cell, achieving clinical efficacy without graft failure.

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Aim: To study the role of solar elastosis in the patient's with Conjunctival Squamous Cell Neoplasia (CSCN). Materials and Methods: Paraffin embedded 30 Conjunctival Squamous Cell Neoplasia tissues were studied for the presence of solar elastosis by Verhoeff's stain. Nineteen Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC), 6 Carcinoma In Situ (CIS) and 5 Conjunctival Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) specimens were included in the study. Disease free conjunctiva and pterygium tissues were used as negative and positive control respectively. Results: Solar elastosis was found to be present in 19 of 30 (63.3%) Conjunctival Squamous Cell neoplasia specimens. Conclusion: Our study showed the presence of solar elastosis in conjunctival squamous cell neoplasia. Poor socioeconomic condition is an important factor as most of the elastosis positive patients were farmers.

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Context: Various studies have shown the important risk factors for distant metastasis in head and neck cancer (HNC) which are present in most of the patients in developing countries. Identification of factors on the basis of time to distant metastasis (TDM) can help in future trials targeting smaller subgroups. Aims and Objectives: To identify the factors that predict TDM in radically treated HNC patients. Settings and Design: Retrospective audit. Materials and Methods: Retrospective audit of the prospectively maintained electronic database of a single HNC radiotherapy clinic from 1990 to 2010 was done to identify radically treated patients of HNC who developed distant metastasis. Univariate and multivariate analysis were done to identify baseline (demographic, clinical, pathological, and treatment) factors which could predict TDM, early time to metastasis (ETM; <12 months), intermediate time to metastasis (ITM; 12-24 months), and late time to metastasis (LTM; >2 years) using Kaplan Meier and Cox regression analysis, respectively. Results: One hundred patients with distant metastasis were identified with a median TDM of 7.4 months; 66 had ETM, 17 had ITM, and 17 had LTM. On multivariate analysis, the nodal stage 2-3 (N2/3) was the only baseline factor independently predicting TDM, ETM, and ITM, whereas none of the baseline factors predicted LTM. Conclusions: Higher nodal burden (N2/3) is associated with both ETM and ITM, and calls for aggressive screening, systemic therapy options, and surveillance. It is difficult to predict patients who are at a risk of developing LTM with baseline factors alone and evaluation of biological data is needed.

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Introducton: The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical characteristics, post-surgery adjuvant treatment approach and posttreatment disease course in patients with intermediate risk stage I endometrium cancer and also to assess the effects of known prognostic factors on this group of patients. Patients and Methods: A total of 148 patients followed up postoperatively or after adjuvant treatment between 1996 and 2007 were evaluated retrospectively. Median follow-up duration was 67 months (range: 7-166). Among the study population 14.9% had Ib and 83.1% had stage Ic disease. 72 were treated by external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), 7 by intracavitary radiotherapy (ICRT), 65 by external + intracavitary radiotherapy (EBRT + ICRT), and one by chemoradiotherapy (CRT). Results: Vaginal vault is found to be the most common site of recurrences. Five and 10-year local control (LC) rates were 96.6% and 95.9%, respectively, while 5 and 10-year distant control (DC) rates were 94.6% and 91.9%, respectively. One, 5 and 10-year overall survival rates (OS) were 99.3%, 87.6% and 71.2%, respectively, while 1, 5 and 10-year progression-free survival rates (PFS) were 97.3%, 87.6% and 71.2%, respectively. Univariate analysis has revealed that prognostic factors as age (P = 0.0001), menopausal status (P = 0.049) and EBRT duration (P = 0.003) statistically significantly affected OS; while age (P = 0.0001) and EBRT duration (P = 0.006) affected PFS. Multivariate analysis has revealed that only age (P = 0.001) (P = 0.0001) and ERT duration (P = 0.021) (P = 0.027) affected both OS and PFS. Conclusion: LC and OS rates are high in the intermediate risk group. Age over 60 years and EBRT duration of 35 days and over both have negative effects on outcome in this group.

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Background: Malignant tumors of the trachea are rare. A multimodality treatment approach is often necessary. Outcomes of radical non-surgical approaches are sparse. Radiation combined with sequential or concurrent chemotherapy is an important treatment option. Materials and Methods: We present an analysis of outcomes using modern radiotherapy and chemotherapy for tracheal tumors. Results: Radiation dose escalation using modern techniques is of benefit for these tumors. The results with chemotherapy are encouraging. Conclusions: Radiation plays a distinct role and should be a part of treatment for these tumors. The role of chemotherapy needs to be studied further.

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Aim: The aim of this study is to identify the prognostic value of serum interleukin (IL)-18 level in hepatitis C virus (HCV) -related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in Tropical Medicine department and HCC unit in Ain Shams University Hospitals. It included 35 patients with HCV associated HCC fit for radio frequency ablation and 20 healthy control subjects. Serum IL-18 level was measured for all participants at the beginning of the study. Patients were followed-up for 1 year then serum IL-18 re-measured at the end of the follow-up period. Results: Pre-intervention serum IL-18 level was significantly higher in patients than healthy control subjects and was associated with bad clinical, laboratory or radiological prognosis. Post follow-up mean value of IL-18 level was significantly lower than pre-intervention level. Conclusion: Higher pre-intervention serum IL-18 level in HCV -related HCC patients level was associated with bad prognosis either clinically, laboratory or radiologically.

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